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terrain details

  • 1 terrain details

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > terrain details

  • 2 terrain details

    English-Russian cartography dictionary > terrain details

  • 3 terrain details

    элементы рельефа; местные предметы

    English-Russian military dictionary > terrain details

  • 4 detail

    деталь; наряд; команда; ( временное) назначение; наряжать ( на службу) ; назначать, выделять ( в наряд)

    details, post! — расчеты, по местам! (команда)

    — post support detail
    — under detail with

    English-Russian military dictionary > detail

  • 5 trouble

    trouble ['trʌbəl]
    ennuis ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (e), 1 (f), 1 (h) problèmes ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (d)-(f), 1 (h) difficultés ⇒ 1 (b) mal ⇒ 1 (b), 1 (c) peine ⇒ 1 (c) défaut ⇒ 1 (d) troubles ⇒ 1 (g) inquiéter ⇒ 2 (a) troubler ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (e) gêner ⇒ 2 (b) déranger ⇒ 2 (c), 2 (d) se déranger ⇒ 3 (a)
    1 noun
    (a) (UNCOUNT) (conflict) ennuis mpl, problèmes mpl; (discord) discorde f;
    ∎ to be in trouble avoir des ennuis;
    ∎ you're really in trouble now! tu es dans de beaux draps ou te voilà bien maintenant!;
    ∎ I've never been in trouble with the police je n'ai jamais eu d'ennuis ou d'histoires avec la police;
    ∎ to get into trouble s'attirer des ennuis, se faire attraper;
    ∎ to get into trouble with the police avoir affaire à la police;
    ∎ her sharp tongue often gets her into trouble sa causticité lui attire souvent des ennuis;
    ∎ he got into trouble for stealing apples il s'est fait attraper pour avoir volé des pommes;
    ∎ he got his friends into trouble il a causé des ennuis à ses amis;
    ∎ to get sb out of trouble tirer qn d'affaire;
    ∎ to keep out of trouble éviter les ennuis;
    ∎ to keep sb out of trouble éviter des ennuis à qn;
    ∎ he's just looking or asking for trouble il cherche les ennuis;
    ∎ it's asking for trouble driving without insurance on cherche les histoires quand on conduit sans assurance;
    ∎ there's trouble brewing ça sent le roussi;
    ∎ she caused a lot of trouble between them elle a semé la discorde entre eux;
    ∎ this means trouble ça va mal se passer;
    ∎ there'll be trouble if he finds out je vais/tu vas/on va/ etc avoir des ennuis s'il s'en rend compte
    (b) (UNCOUNT) (difficulties, problems) difficultés fpl, ennuis mpl, mal m;
    ∎ to make or to create trouble for sb causer des ennuis à qn;
    ∎ to make trouble for oneself se créer des ennuis;
    ∎ he's given his parents a lot of trouble (hard time) il a donné du fil à retordre à ses parents; (worry) il a donné beaucoup de soucis à ses parents;
    ∎ the baby hardly gives me any trouble le bébé ne me donne pratiquement aucun mal;
    ∎ this machine's been or given nothing but trouble cette machine ne m'a/ne nous a apporté que des problèmes;
    ∎ my eyes have been giving me some trouble mes yeux me donnent quelques soucis;
    ∎ what's the trouble? qu'est-ce qu'il y a?, quel est le problème?;
    ∎ you'll have trouble with him il va vous causer des difficultés ou des ennuis;
    ∎ to have trouble (in) doing sth avoir du mal ou des difficultés à faire qch;
    ∎ to be in/to get into trouble (climber, swimmer, business) être/se trouver en difficulté;
    ∎ British euphemism to get a girl into trouble mettre une fille dans une position intéressante;
    ∎ familiar he's got woman/she's got man trouble ça ne va pas très bien pour lui/elle côté cœur
    (c) (inconvenience, bother) mal m, peine f;
    ∎ to go or to put oneself to the trouble to do or of doing sth prendre ou se donner la peine de faire qch;
    ∎ to go or to put oneself to a lot of trouble to do or doing sth se donner beaucoup de mal ou de peine pour faire qch;
    ∎ she went to considerable trouble to get the tickets elle s'est donné énormément de mal pour obtenir les billets;
    ∎ you shouldn't have gone to all this trouble il ne fallait pas vous donner tout ce mal ou tant de peine;
    ∎ I went to a lot of trouble for nothing je me suis donné beaucoup de mal pour rien;
    ∎ to put sb to trouble donner du mal à qn, déranger qn;
    ∎ I hope we're not putting you to too much trouble j'espère que nous ne vous donnons pas trop de mal;
    ∎ he didn't even take the trouble to read the instructions il ne s'est même pas donné ou il n'a même pas pris la peine de lire les instructions;
    ∎ I don't want to be any trouble je ne veux pas vous déranger;
    ∎ if it's no trouble si ça ne vous dérange pas;
    ∎ it's no trouble (at all) cela ne me dérange pas (du tout);
    ∎ nothing is too much trouble for her elle se donne vraiment beaucoup de mal;
    ∎ it's not worth the trouble, it's more trouble than it's worth cela n'en vaut pas la peine, le jeu n'en vaut pas la chandelle
    (d) (drawback) problème m, défaut m;
    ∎ the trouble with him is that he's too proud le problème avec lui, c'est qu'il est trop fier;
    ∎ the only trouble with your solution is that it's expensive ta solution n'a qu'un défaut, c'est qu'elle revient cher;
    ∎ the trouble is that no one understands him l'ennui ou le problème, c'est que personne ne le comprend;
    ∎ that's the trouble c'est ça le problème
    (e) (UNCOUNT) (mechanical failure) ennuis mpl, problèmes mpl;
    ∎ I'm having a bit of engine trouble j'ai des problèmes de moteur;
    ∎ they've had trouble with the new dishwasher, the new dishwasher has given them trouble ils ont eu des problèmes avec leur nouveau lave-vaisselle;
    ∎ have you found out what the trouble is? avez-vous trouvé d'où vient la panne?;
    ∎ what seems to be the trouble? qu'est-ce qui ne va pas?
    (f) (worry, woe) ennui m, souci m, problème m;
    ∎ money troubles ennuis mpl d'argent;
    ∎ at last your troubles are over enfin vos soucis sont terminés;
    ∎ her troubles are not at an end yet elle n'est pas encore au bout de ses peines;
    ∎ South of England familiar humorous the trouble and strife (rhyming slang = wife) ma légitime;
    ∎ familiar here comes trouble! tiens, voilà les ennuis qui arrivent!
    (g) (UNCOUNT) (friction) troubles mpl, conflits mpl; (disorder, disturbance) troubles mpl, désordres mpl;
    ∎ the trouble began when the police arrived l'agitation a commencé quand la police est arrivée;
    ∎ industrial or labour troubles conflits mpl sociaux;
    ∎ there will be trouble il va y avoir du grabuge;
    ∎ there's some sort of trouble down at the mine il y a de l'agitation à la mine;
    ∎ there was trouble on the pitch/on the terraces il y a eu des histoires sur le terrain/dans les gradins
    (h) (UNCOUNT) Medicine ennuis mpl, problèmes mpl;
    ∎ I have kidney/back trouble j'ai des ennuis rénaux/des problèmes de dos;
    ∎ stomach trouble troubles mpl digestifs;
    ∎ to have heart trouble être malade du cœur
    (a) (worry) inquiéter; (upset) troubler;
    ∎ what troubles me is that we've had no news ce qui m'inquiète, c'est que nous n'avons pas eu de nouvelles;
    ∎ he didn't want to trouble her with bad news il ne voulait pas l'inquiéter en lui annonçant de mauvaises nouvelles;
    ∎ don't let it trouble you! que cela ne vous inquiète pas!, ne vous tourmentez pas à ce sujet!;
    ∎ nothing seems to trouble him il ne s'en fait jamais, il ne se fait jamais de souci;
    ∎ her conscience was troubling her elle avait des problèmes de conscience
    ∎ his back is troubling him il a des problèmes de dos;
    ∎ how long has this cough been troubling you? depuis combien de temps souffrez-vous de cette toux?;
    ∎ she's often troubled by nightmares elle est sujette aux cauchemars
    (c) (bother, disturb) déranger;
    ∎ I won't trouble you with the details just now je vous ferai grâce des ou épargnerai les détails pour l'instant;
    ∎ he didn't even trouble himself to phone il ne s'est même pas donné la peine de téléphoner;
    ∎ don't trouble yourself! ne vous dérangez pas!; ironic ne vous dérangez surtout pas!
    ∎ can I trouble you to open the window? est-ce que je peux vous demander d'ouvrir la fenêtre?;
    ∎ I'm sorry to trouble you, but could I have the newspaper? excusez-moi de vous déranger, mais puis-je avoir le journal?;
    ∎ could I trouble you a minute? excusez-moi, vous auriez une minute?;
    ∎ may I trouble you for a light/the salt? puis-je vous demander du feu/le sel?;
    ∎ British I'll trouble you to be more polite next time! (in reproach) vous allez me faire le plaisir d'être plus poli la prochaine fois!
    (e) literary (disturb → water) troubler;
    ∎ a light breeze troubled the surface of the lake une légère brise troublait la surface du lac
    (a) (bother) se déranger;
    ∎ don't trouble to do the washing-up now ne faites pas la vaisselle maintenant, ce n'est pas la peine
    (b) (worry) se faire du souci, s'en faire;
    ∎ don't trouble about it ne vous faites pas de souci ou ne vous en faites pas (pour ça)
    ∎ the Troubles = le conflit politique en Irlande du Nord
    ►► trouble spot point m chaud ou de conflit

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > trouble

  • 6 rough

    A n
    1 Sport ( in golf) rough m ;
    2 ( unfinished copy) ( draft) brouillon m ; ( sketch) gen, spec ébauche f ; to write sth out in rough écrire qch au brouillon.
    B adj
    1 ( not smooth) [hand, skin] rêche ; ( stronger) rugueux/-euse ; [surface, rock] rugueux/-euse ; [material, paper] rêche ; [road, terrain] cahoteux/-euse ; [landscape] sauvage ; [grass] sec/sèche ; to smooth (off) the rough edges (of stone, wood, glass etc) polir ;
    2 ( brutal) [person, treatment, behaviour, sport] brutal, violent ; [area, district] dur ; to be rough with sb/sth être brutal avec qn/qch ; to get rough (with sb) devenir violent (avec qn) ;
    3 ( approximate) [description, map, indication] sommaire ; [translation, calculation] sommaire, rapide ; [figure, estimate] approximatif/-ive ; can you give me a rough idea of the cost? est-ce que vous pouvez me donner une idée approximative du coût? ; rough justice justice f sommaire or expéditive ;
    4 ( difficult) [life, period] dur, difficile ; to be rough on sb [person] être dur avec qn ; it's rough on you/him c'est dur pour toi/lui ; we're having a rough time on traverse une période difficile ; to give sb a rough ride rendre la vie dure à qn ; he's had a rough deal ○ il a été traité injustement ;
    5 ( crude) [person, manner, behaviour] grossier/-ière ; [dwelling, shelter, table] rudimentaire ;
    6 ( harsh) [voice, sound, taste, wine] âpre ;
    7 ( stormy) [sea, crossing] agité ; [weather] gros/grosse ; ( in plane) [landing] mouvementé ;
    8 ○ ( unwell) to feel/to look rough se sentir/avoir l'air patraque ○.
    C adv
    1 ( outdoors) to sleep/to live rough dormir/vivre à la dure ;
    2 ( violently) [fight, play] brutalement.
    to cut up rough s'énerver ; to rough it vivre à la dure.
    ■ rough in:
    ▶ rough in [sth] ( sketch) esquisser ; ( estimate) ébaucher, donner une idée de [figures, details].
    ■ rough out:
    ▶ rough out [sth] esquisser, ébaucher [plan, proposal, drawing].
    ■ rough up ○:
    ▶ rough [sb] up, rough up [sb]
    1 ( manhandle) bousculer euph, malmener ;
    2 ( beat up) tabasser ○.

    Big English-French dictionary > rough

  • 7 Surface area measurements

    Note that French has a comma where English has a decimal point.
    1 sq in = 6,45 cm2 ( centimètres carrés)*
    1 sq ft = 929,03 cm2
    1 sq yd = 0,84 m2 ( mètres carrés)
    1 acre = 40,47 ares = 0,4 ha ( hectares)
    1 sq ml = 2,59 km2 ( kilomètres carrés)
    * There are three ways of saying 6,45 cm2, and other measurements like it:
    six virgule quarante-cinq centimètres carrés, or ( less formally) six centimètres carrés virgule quarante-cinq, or six centimètres carrés quarante-cinq.
    For more details on how to say numbers ⇒ Numbers.
    how big is your garden?
    = quelle est la superficie de votre jardin?
    what’s its area?
    = il a quelle superficie?
    it’s 200 square metres
    = il mesure 200 mètres carrés
    its surface area is 200 square metres
    = il mesure 200 mètres carrés de superficie
    it’s 20 metres by 10 metres
    = il mesure 20 mètres sur 10 mètres or il fait 20 mètres sur 10 mètres
    sold by the square metre
    = vendu au mètre carré
    there are 10,000 square centimetres in a square metre
    = il y a 10000 centimètres carrés dans un mètre carré
    10,000 square centimetres make one square metre
    = 10000 centimètres carrés font un mètre carré
    A is the same area as B
    = A a la même superficie que B
    A and B are the same area
    = A et B ont la même superficie
    Note the French construction with de, coming after the noun it describes:
    a 200-square-metre plot
    = un terrain de 200 mètres carrés

    Big English-French dictionary > Surface area measurements

  • 8 firm

    Ⅰ.
    firm1 [fɜ:m]
    (company) entreprise f; (of solicitors) étude f; (of lawyers, barristers, consultants) cabinet m;
    ∎ it's a good firm to work for cette entreprise est un bon employeur
    Ⅱ.
    firm2
    (a) (solid, hard → flesh, fruit, mattress etc) ferme;
    ∎ on firm ground sur la terre ferme; figurative sur un terrain solide;
    ∎ I'm on firmer ground when it comes to the marketing side je suis plus à mon affaire pour ce qui touche au marketing
    (b) (stable, secure → basis) solide; (→ foundations) stable; Commerce & Finance (→ currency, market) stable; (→ offer, sale, deal) ferme; (→ contango rates) tendu;
    ∎ these shares remain firm at 370p ces actions se maintiennent à 370 pence;
    ∎ the dollar remained firm against the yen le dollar est resté fort contre le yen
    (c) (strong → handshake, grip, leadership) ferme;
    ∎ to have a firm hold or grasp or grip of sth tenir qch fermement
    (d) (unshakeable, definite → belief, evidence, friendship) solide; (→ view, opinion) déterminé, arrêté; (→ intention, voice, agreement, offer) ferme; (→ date) définitif;
    ∎ they are firm friends ce sont de bons amis;
    ∎ he was very firm about this il a été très ferme à ce propos;
    ∎ she gave a firm denial elle a nié fermement;
    ∎ a firm favourite for the Derby/with the crowd un grand favori dans le Derby/auprès de la foule;
    ∎ I am a firm believer in female equality je crois fermement à l'égalité de la femme;
    ∎ to be firm with a child/dog être ferme avec un enfant/chien;
    ∎ he was polite but firm il a été poli mais ferme
    ∎ to stand firm on sth ne pas céder sur qch;
    ∎ he stands firm on this issue il a une position bien arrêtée sur le sujet
    ∎ to firm the soil tasser le sol
    (muscles, prices) se raffermir
    ➲ firm up
    (make firm → muscles, prices) raffermir;
    ∎ to firm up an agreement régler les derniers détails d'un accord
    (muscles, prices) se raffermir

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > firm

  • 9 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

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